| Date |
Ruler |
Events |
Other people/events |
| 770 BC |
Ping |
|
|
| 722 BC |
|
Spring and Autumn Period begins, the State of Lu begins the chronicle of the Spring and Autumn Annals. |
Capital moved from Xi'an to Luoyang. |
| 720 BC |
Huan |
|
|
| 707 BC |
|
King Huan of Zhou led a campaign against Duke Zhuang of Zheng after the latter refused to appear in the capital, angered that Huan had dismissed him from his old post as Left Advisor at court. King Huan was allegedly shamed when he was injured in the shoulder by an arrow in an ensuing battle. Duke Zhuang continued to rule Zheng until his death in 701 BC. |
|
| 697 BC |
Zhuang |
|
|
| 685 BC |
|
The Duke Huan of Qi began rule over the State of Qi in this year, and was the first of the Five Hegemons who assumed great autonomy from the Zhou Dynasty monarch, the latter whom became more or less a figurehead during the Eastern Zhou. |
|
| 682 BC |
Xi |
|
|
| 677 BC |
Hui |
|
|
| 651 BC |
Xiang |
|
|
| 645 BC |
|
Death of Guan Zhong, the chancellor of Qi who was appointed by Duke Huan as recommended by Bao Shuya. Guan initiated centralizing administrative and economic reforms that, for a time, made Qi the most successful and developed state in ancient China. |
|
| 632 BC |
|
Battle of Chengpu |
|
| 618 BC |
Qing |
|
|
| 612 BC |
Kuang |
|
|
| 606 BC |
Ding |
Sunshu Ao, China's first known hydraulic engineer. |
|
| 595 BC |
|
Battle of Bi |
|
| 585 BC |
Jian |
|
|
| 575 BC |
|
Battle of Yanling |
|
| 571 BC |
Ling |
|
|
| 551 BC |
|
Lao Zi, Confucius |
|
| 548 BC |
|
Oldest known reference to the weiqi or go board game. |
|
| 544 BC |
Jing (Jia Gui) |
|
|
| 543 BC |
|
Guided by the aristocratic statesman Zi Chan, the State of Zheng creates a formal code of law. |
|
| 520 BC |
Jing (Ji Gai) |
|
|
| 515 BC |
|
King Liao of Wu is assassinated by Zhuan Zhu, allowing King Helü of Wu to ascend to the throne. |
|
| 506 BC |
|
Battle of Boju |
|
| 500 BC |
|
Approximate date for the invention of cast iron in China. |
Approximate date for the first use of bronze knife money. |
| 486 BC |
|
King Fuchai of Wu has the 'Han Gou' built, a proto-section of the Grand Canal of China |
|
| 484 BC |
|
Death of Wu Zixu, an official of Wu and advisor to King Helü. |
|
| 482 BC |
|
King Goujian of Yue captures the Wu state capital in a surprise assault while King Fuchai was away at Huangchi. |
|
| 481 BC |
|
End of Spring and Autumn Period |
|
| 475 BC |
Yuan |
|
|
| 473 BC |
|
The State of Wu is annexed by the State of Yue. |
|
| 470 BC |
|
Birth of Mozi |
|
| 468 BC |
Zhending |
|
|
| 465 BC |
|
Death of King Goujian of Yue; his sword was later found in an archaeological site in Hubei in the 1960s. |
|
| 441 BC |
Ai & Si |
|
|
| 440 BC |
Kao |
|
|
| 432 BC |
|
Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng |
|
| 425 BC |
Weilie |
|
|
| 403 BC |
|
The State of Jin is partitioned, marking the beginning of the Warring States. Meanwhile, the Marquis Wen of Wei ascends to power, sponsoring Confucianism in Wei, and employing able advisors such as the Legalist Li Kui, the militant officer Wu Qi, and the hydraulic engineer Ximen Bao. |
|
| 401 BC |
An |
|
|
| 400 BC |
|
Astronomers Gan De and Shi Shen
Star catalogue compilation (est.) |
Earliest date for the creation of the earliest known maps made in China, from the State of Qin. |
| 389 |
|
Latest possible date for the Zuo Zhuan historical text. |
|
| 386 |
|
The city of Handan is founded, serving as the capital for Zhao. |
|
| 381 BC |
|
Wu Qi assassinated at the funeral of King Diao of Chu; his book, the Wuzi, is considered one of the Seven Military Classics. |
|
| 375 BC |
Lie |
The State of Zheng is annexed by Han. |
|
| 370 BC |
|
Philosopher Zhuangzi is born around this time. |
|
| 368 BC |
Xian |
|
|
| 354 BC |
|
Battle of Guiling |
|
| 350 BC |
|
Earliest proposed date for the Guodian Chu Slips, containing the oldest known version of the Tao Te Ching, parts of the Classic of History, and a chapter from the Classic of Rites |
|
| 342 BC |
|
Battle of Maling |
Crossbow used in China. |
| 320 BC |
Shenjing |
|
|
| 319 BC |
|
Philosopher Mencius becomes an official in the State of Qi |
|
| 316 BC |
|
Death of Sun Bin |
|
| 314 BC |
Nan |
|
|
| 310 BC |
|
Birth of Xunzi |
|
| 307 BC |
|
Imitating the northern nomadic armies, King Wuling of Zhao reforms the Zhao state's military by adopting formal cavalry ranks over charioteers and importing the trouser-pants style of the nomads for soldiers. |
|
| 305 BC |
|
Birth of Zou Yan, whose school of thought would for the first time systematically combine the two premodern theories of Yin and yang and the Five Elements. |
|
| 300 BC |
|
Erya, China's oldest known dictionary |
|
| 293 BC |
|
Battle of Yique |
|
| 278 BC |
|
The poem "Lament for Ying" is written by Qu Yuan after discovering that the capital of Chu had been captured by Qin. |
|
| 260 BC |
|
Battle of Changping |
|
| 256 BC |
|
Last king of Zhou dies, marking the end of the dynasty. |
Dujiangyan Irrigation System |
| 250 BC |
|
Repeating crossbow featured in drawings from the records of Chu. |
|
| 246 BC |
|
The Zhengguo Canal is completed by Zheng Guo of Qin. |
|
| Date |
Emperor |
Events |
Other people/events |
| 206 BC |
|
Chu-Han contention, a civil war after the fall of Qin that lasts until 202 BC |
|
| 205 BC |
|
Battle of Jingxing |
|
| 202 BC |
Gaozu |
Battle of Gaixia |
|
| 200 BC |
|
Battle of Baideng |
|
| 193 BC |
|
Death of Xiao He, the Prime Minister of Han |
|
| 195 BC |
|
|
|
| 190 BC |
Hui |
Chang'an becomes the eastern terminus of the Silk Road connecting to Europe |
|
| 189 BC |
|
Death of Zhang Liang, a former marquis of the State of Han and key advisor to Liu Bang who helped found the Han Dynasty. |
|
| 180 BC |
Wen |
Rule of Wen and Jing |
Lü Clan Disturbance |
| 168 BC |
|
Mawangdui Silk Texts are interred at the tombs of Mawangdui, containing some of the oldest known textual versions of the Book of Changes. |
|
| 157 BC |
Jing |
|
|
| 141 BC |
Wu |
|
|
| 140 BC |
|
Persuaded by Dong Zhongshu's essay in a literary competition, Emperor Wu, or his Prime Minister Wei Wan, adopts Confucianism at court. |
|
| 139 BC |
|
Under the patronage of Prince Liu An, the scholars known as the Eight Immortals of Huainan publish the Huainanzi, a philosophical text that also covered subjects of military strategy as well as geography and cartography. |
|
| 133 BC |
|
Sino-Xiongnu War |
Battle of Mayi |
| 130 BC |
|
Sino-Roman relations |
|
| 125 BC |
|
Zhang Qian returns to China to report on his travels and the kingdoms of Dayuan (Fergana), Kangju (Sogdiana), Daxia (Greco-Bactrian Kingdom), Shendu (Indo-Greek Kingdom), Anxi (Parthia), and Taozhi (Mesopotamia). |
|
| 119 BC |
|
Battle of Mobei |
|
| 108 BC |
|
Battle of Loulan |
Wiman Joseon in Korea falls to Han forces. |
| 102 BC |
|
Emperor Wu's forces besiege Kokand in the Fergana Valley |
|
| 100 BC |
|
Steel in China. |
|
| 94 BC |
Zhao |
|
|
| 91 BC |
|
Sima Qian completes the Records of the Grand Historian, a groundbreaking work in Chinese historiography. |
|
| 86 BC |
|
Death of Jin Midi, an official of Xiongnu ethnicity who became a regent of the Han Dynasty during the early reign of Zhao. |
|
| 74 BC |
Xuan |
|
|
| 67 BC |
|
Battle of Jushi |
|
| 60 BC |
|
Protectorate of the Western Regions is established. |
|
| 48 BC |
Yuan |
Consort Ban, a famous female poet, is born around this time. |
|
| 40 BC |
|
The Ji Jiu Pian dictionary records the first known use of the hydrualic-powered trip hammer. |
|
| 37 BC |
|
Death of Jing Fang, who was the first in music theory to note that 53 just fifths approximates 31 octaves. Like the later Zhang Heng, he was also a proponent of the 'radiating influence' theory, which stated that the light of the moon was merely the reflected light of the sun. |
|
| 36 BC |
|
Battle of Zhizhi |
|
| 30 BC |
|
First mention of the wheelbarrow in history. |
|
| 18 BC |
|
Lienü zhuan, a book about exemplary women in Chinese history, is compiled by the scholar Liu Xiang. |
|
| 32 BC |
Cheng |
|
|
| 6 BC |
Ai |
|
|
| 1 BC |
Ping |
|
|
| 1 AD |
|
Sometime from this year until the end of the century, the earliest representation of a stern-mounted rudder for steering ships is made in China, on a tomb model of a sailing junk. |
|
| 2 |
|
Han government census counts 59 million people in the empire. |
|
| 3 |
|
Emperor Ping establishes a nationwide school system on the central, prefectural, and county levels. |
|
| 6 |
Ruzi |
|
|
| 8 |
|
Liu Xin completes his star catalogue of 1080 stars, as well as fixing the year at 365.25016 days long (11 minutes longer than the modern year) by calculating the synodic month to be 29 43/81 days long, with a total of 235 synodic months adding up to 19 years. He is also the first Chinese to attempt a more accurate calculation of pi at 3.154, as the Chinese before him simply approximated it to 3. Zhang Heng and Liu Hui would later improve upon Liu's calculation in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, respectively. |
|
| Date |
Emperor |
Events |
Other people/events |
| 23 |
Gengshi |
|
|
| 25 |
Guangwu |
|
|
| 27 |
|
Chimei rebels surrender to Han authority after defeat |
|
| 31 |
|
Prefect Du Shi invents waterwheel-powered bellows for the blast furnace in making cast iron. |
|
| 33 |
|
Rebellion of Gongsun Shu; Gongsun blockades the width of the Yangzi River with a fortified floating pontoon bridge, but his defenses give in once Han General Cen Peng employs 'castle ships' to ram and attack Gongsun's rebel navy |
|
| 43 |
|
Second Chinese domination of Vietnam |
|
| 52 |
|
The first known gazetteer of China, the Yuejue Shu, is written. |
|
| 57 |
|
Sino-Japanese relations |
|
| 58 |
|
Death of Deng Yu, the Prime Minister of Han and military officer. |
|
| 65 |
|
Liu Ying, son of Emperor Guangwu, sponsors Buddhism. |
|
| 68 |
|
White Horse Temple, the first Buddhist temple in China, is founded. |
|
| 73 |
|
Battle of Yiwulu |
|
| 83 |
|
Wang Chong correctly theorizes the nature of the water cycle; he is also the first in Chinese history to mention use of the chain pump. |
|
| 87 |
|
Yuan An, an advocate of marriage alliance policies with the Xiongnu, is promoted to the position of Minister over the Masses. |
|
| 88 |
He |
|
|
| 89 |
|
Battle of Ikh Bayan |
|
| 97 |
|
Ban Chao reaches the Caspian Sea with his army, sends envoy Gan Ying to the outskirts of the Roman Empire. |
|
| 100 |
|
The Shuowen Jiezi dictionary is completed by Xu Shen. |
|
| 105 |
|
Cai Lun invents papermaking |
Goguryeo-Han Wars |
| 106 |
Shang |
|
|
| 111 |
|
Ban Zhao completes the Book of Han, which was begun by her father Ban Biao and continued by her elder brother Ban Gu. |
|
| 120 |
|
Zhang Heng completes his star catalogue, documenting 2,500 stars in over 100 constellations, writes a new formula for pi, corrected mistakes in the Chinese calendar, gave reasoning for a spherical moon that reflects light, and noted that lunar eclipse occurred when the earth obstructed the sunlight reaching the moon, while a solar eclipse was the moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching earth. |
|
| 125 |
|
Zhang Heng invents the first hydraulic-powered armillary sphere, given motive power by a waterwheel and incorporating an inflow water clock, the latter of which he improved by adding a compensating tank between the reservoir and the inflow vessel. |
The earliest known Chinese depiction of a mechanical distance-marking odometer is drawn on a mural of the Xiao Tang Shan Tomb. |
| 132 |
|
Zhang Heng invents a seismometer device that, with a pendulum and complex set of gears and cranks, is able to discern the cardinal direction of earthquakes by the dropping of bronze balls into wrought toad's mouths indicating the direction. |
Birth of Cai Yong, a mathematician, astronomer, musician, calligrapher, and father of Cai Wenji. |
| 142 |
Shun |
The Kinship of the Three |
|
| 147 |
|
Birth of Lokaksema, a Yuezhi monk from Kushan who translated Mahayana Buddhist texts into Chinese. |
|
| 148 |
|
An Shigao, a Persian prince from Parthia, arrives in China in this year to translate Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist texts into Chinese. |
|
| 166 |
|
Roman embassy reaches China. |
Disasters of Partisan Prohibitions |
| 168 |
Ling |
|
|
| 177 |
|
Birth of Cai Wenji, a famous female poet and musical composer. |
|
| 179 |
|
Earliest known reference to the The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art |
|
| 184 |
|
Yellow Turban Rebellion |
|
| 185 |
|
Zhi Yao, a Yuezhi monk from Kushan, translates Buddhist texts into Chinese. |
|
| 189 |
Prince of Hongnong |
Dong Zhuo poisons the Prince of Hongnong |
|
| 190 |
Xian |
Campaign against Dong Zhuo |
Battle of Hulao Pass, Battle of Sishui Pass |
| 191 |
|
Battle of Jieqiao |
Battle of Xiangyang |
| 192 |
|
Lü Bu murders his tyrannical stepfather Dong Zhuo, an assassination plot whose main architect was Wang Yun. |
|
| 194 |
|
Sun Ce's Conquest of Wu Territory |
Battle of Yan Province |
| 197 |
|
Battle of Wancheng |
|
| 198 |
|
Battle of Xiapi |
Battle of Yijing |
| 200 |
|
Battle of Guandu |
|
| 202 |
|
Battle of Bowang |
|
| 204 |
|
Gongsun Kang, a Chinese warlord of Liaodong, establishes the Daifang Commandery in northern Korea. |
|
| 208 |
|
Battle of Red Cliffs |
Battle of Changban, Battle of Xiakou |
| 211 |
|
Battle of Tong Pass |
|
| 214 |
|
Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province |
Battle of Jiameng Pass |
| 217 |
|
Battle of Hefei |
Battle of Ruxukou |
| 218 |
|
Battle of Mount Dingjun |
|
| 219 |
|
Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province |
Battle of Fancheng |
| 220 |
|
Cao Pi forces the last Han emperor to abdicate. |
|
| Date |
Emperor |
Events |
Other people/events |
| 265 |
Wu |
Sometime between this year and 271, the Jin Dynasty cartographer and geographer Pei Xiu noted a groundbreaking development in Chinese cartography, as he was the first to describe the grid reference and graduated scale of measurement for Chinese maps; however, it is known that grids and familiarity with scaled distance on maps existing beforehand, while scholars point to evidence that it might have been an original innovation of Zhang Heng. |
|
| 271 |
|
|
|
| 280 |
|
Unification of China, defeat of Wu |
Records of Three Kingdoms by Chen Shou. |
| 290 |
Hui |
|
|
| 291 |
|
War of the Eight Princes |
|
| 304 |
|
Sixteen Kingdoms (Han Zhao, Later Zhao, Cheng Han, Former Liang, Later Liang, Northern Liang, Western Liáng, Southern Liang, Former Yan, Later Yan, Northern Yan, Southern Yan, Former Qin, Later Qin, Western Qin, Xia) |
|
| 306 |
|
|
| 307 |
Huai |
|
| 311 |
Min |
Emperor Huai is captured by Han Zhao forces, the capital is moved from Luoyang to Chang'an. |
| 313 |
|
The state of Goguryeo in Manchuria and Korea conquers the Jin-Chinese Lelang Commandery. |
|
| 316 |
|
Chang'an is captured, Emperor Min of Jin surrenders to Liu Yao, a general of the Xiongnu state Han Zhao. The Jin court flees south to Jiankang, what is now Nanjing, the capital of the Eastern Jin Dynasty. |
|
| 318 |
|
Former Emperor Min is executed by Liu Cong, emperor of Han Zhao. |
|
| Date |
Emperor |
Events |
Other people/events |
| 618 |
Gaozu |
Transition from Sui to Tang |
|
| 621 |
|
Battle of Hulao |
|
| 624 |
|
The Yiwen Leiju encyclopedia is completed by Ouyang Xun. |
|
| 626 |
Taizong |
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Eastern Tujue |
Incident at Xuanwu Gate |
| 635 |
|
First Christian missionaries arrive in China: Nestorian monks from Asia Minor and Persia, building Daqin Pagoda. Alopen, a Persia bishop of the Assyrian Church of the East, also writes the Jesus Sutras. |
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tuyuhun; also, Book of Liang is published. |
| 636 |
|
Xumi Pagoda is completed. |
Compilations of the Book of Chen, Book of Northern Qi, Book of Zhou, and the Book of Sui. |
| 638 |
|
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tufan |
|
| 639 |
|
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Xueyantuo |
|
| 640 |
|
Protectorate General to Pacify the West |
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Xiyu states |
| 643 |
|
Emperor Taizong commissions artist Yan Liben to paint the portraits of 24 different emperors and 18 noted scholars for the Portraits at Lingyan Pavilion. |
|
| 644 |
|
Emperor Taizong's campaign against Goguryeo, Tang allies with Korean Silla during the Goguryeo-Tang Wars |
|
| 646 |
|
Great Tang Records on the Western Regions is compiled by Bianji, documenting the travels of Buddhist monk Xuanzang through the Gobi Desert, Kucha, Tashkent, Samarkand, Gandhara, and finally to India where he studied at Nalanda. |
|
| 647 |
|
Protectorate General to Pacify the North |
|
| 648 |
|
Book of Jin is compiled. |
|
| 649 |
Gaozong |
Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar (est.) |
|
| 650 |
|
The Records of the Tang Dynasty describes a landmark visit to China by Saad ibn Abi Waqqas, one of the sahaba, in 650 C.E. This event is considered to be the birth of Islam in China. |
|
| 657 |
|
Emperor Gaozong commissions the compilation of a large materia medica documenting the use of 833 medicinal drugs. |
|
| 659 |
|
Compilations for the History of Southern Dynasties and History of Northern Dynasties is completed. |
|
| 663 |
|
Battle of Baekgang, Silla-Tang forces defeat Japanese-Baekje navy. |
|
| 666 |
|
Two Chinese Buddhist monks, Zhi Yu and Zhi You, craft a mechanical South Pointing Chariot for Japanese Emperor Tenji. |
|
| 668 |
|
Protectorate General to Pacify the East |
|
| 684 |
Wu Zetian |
Qianling Mausoleum is completed. |
Death of poet Luo Binwang. |
| 699 |
|
Chinese troops retake the Four Garrisons of Anxi from the Tibetans. |
|
| 700 |
|
Approximate date for the creation of the Dunhuang map, an astronomical chart. |
|
| 704 |
|
Giant Wild Goose Pagoda is rebuilt. |
|
| 705 |
Zhongzong |
|
|
| 709 |
|
Small Wild Goose Pagoda is completed. |
|
| 710 |
Ruizong |
The Shitong, a history of Chinese historiography up until the late 8th century, is compiled by Liu Zhiji. |
Death of Shangguan Wan'er, a female writer, government official, and concubine. |
| 712 |
Xuanzong |
Pear Garden, an Academy of Music that trained acting troupes. |
|
| 713 |
|
Kai yuan newspaper |
|
| 725 |
|
Yi Xing invents a water-powered celestial globe featuring an escapement mechanism and striking clock. |
|
| 729 |
|
Gautama Siddha completes the compilation of the Treatise on Astrology of the Kaiyuan Era. |
|
| 740 |
|
This year marks the death of both Wu Daozi, a renowned Tang painter, and Meng Haoran, a renowned Tang poet. |
|
| 744 |
|
Famous poets Du Fu and Li Bai meet for the first time. |
|
| 751 |
|
Battle of Talas; this battle marks the beginning of the westward transmission of the ancient Chinese papermaking process. |
|
| 755 |
|
An Lushan Rebellion |
Death of Zhang Xuan, a renowned painter. |
| 756 |
Suzong |
Battle of Yongqiu |
|
| 758 |
|
Arab and Persian pirates loot and burn the seaport of Guangzhou, causing Chinese officials to virtually shut down the port for five decades while foreign vessels from the Indian Ocean came mostly to Hanoi in Chinese-controlled Vietnam to trade there instead. |
|
| 757 |
|
Battle of Suiyang |
|
| 760 |
|
Earliest date for the Classic of Tea by Lu Yu. |
|
| 761 |
|
Death of Wang Wei, a renowned painter, musician, poet, scholar, and official. |
|
| 762 |
Daizong |
The Jingxingji is written by Du Huan, which described several major foreign countries including the Abbasid Empire and the Byzantine Empire. |
|
| 763 |
|
Shi Siming is killed by his own son, putting an end to the An Lushan Rebellion |
|
| 779 |
Dezong |
|
|
| 781 |
|
Nestorian Stone is composed. |
|
| 783 |
|
Death of the famous painter Han Gan. |
|
| 785 |
|
Official Jia Dan begins a monumental work of cartography and geography. In it he describes many foreign places, including the Japan, Korea, India, Sri Lanka, Arabian Peninsula, the Euphrates River and Baghdad of modern day Iraq, and minaret lighthouses in the Persian Gulf that were later described by al-Mas'udi and al-Muqaddasi. |
|
| 794 |
|
Prince Li Gao has the first Chinese paddle-wheel ships made. |
|
| 798 |
|
The Army of Divine Strategy, staffed by eunuch officers, reaches 240,000 troops, thanks largely to the revenues of the salt commission. |
|
| 799 |
|
The lucrative trade of the salt commission, a government monopoly, accounts for half of the government's incoming revenues by this year. |
|
| 801 |
|
Compilation of the Tongdian history and encyclopedia by Du You is complete. |
|
| 805 |
Xianzong |
|
|
| 806 |
|
With a renewed military, Emperor Xianzong of Tang begins a series of seven major military campaigns in which he quells all remaining rebelling provinces except for two. |
|
| 820 |
Muzong |
|
|
| 824 |
Jingzong |
Death of Han Yu, an essayist and poet who was an early proponent of the Classical Prose Movement, while his works are considered foundations for later Neo-Confucianism. He was also an early polemecist and advocate against Buddhism. |
|
| 826 |
Wenzong |
|
|
| 831 |
|
An Uyghur Turk sues the son of a Tang grand general who had failed to repay a debt of 11 million government-issued copper coins. Emperor Wenzong of Tang soon hears the news, and is so upset that he not only banishes the general, but attempts to ban all trade between Chinese and foreigners except for trade in livestock. This ban is unsuccessful, and trade with foreigners resumes, especially in maritime affairs overseas. |
|
| 840 |
Wuzong |
|
|
| 843 |
|
Chang'an, a large fire consumes 4,000 homes, warehouses, and other buildings in the East Market, yet the rest of the city is at a safe distance from the blaze (which is largely quarantined in East Central Chang'an thanks to the large width of roads in Chang'an that produce fire breaks). |
|
| 845 |
|
Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution |
|
| 846 |
Xuānzong |
Death of Bai Juyi, a renowned Tang poet who penned over 2,800 poems in his lifetime. |
|
| 851 |
|
Arab merchant Suleiman al-Tajir visits Guangzhou seaport and describes Chinese porcelain manufacture, tea consumption, granaries, and the Islamic |